[83] Combined, these burns successfully sent the probe on a solar-escape trajectory at 16.26 kilometers per second (58,536km/h; 36,373mph). ", "New Horizons is Still Only Halfway Through Its Download from Pluto", "New Horizons Returns Last Bits of 2015 Flyby Data to Earth", "After Visiting Pluto, NASA's New Horizons Spacecraft Reaches Another Cosmic Milestone", "It's Official! No NASA spacecraft had ever launched with a nuclear-powered electrical source before. [119] Between July 1924, 2014, New Horizons' LORRI snapped 12 images of Charon revolving around Pluto, covering almost one full rotation at distances ranging from about 429 to 422million kilometers (267,000,000 to 262,000,000mi). One detects the angle to the Sun, whereas the other measures spin rate and clocking. That of Tvashtar reached an altitude of up to 330km (210mi). After Visiting Pluto, NASA's New Horizons Spacecraft Reaches Another Cosmic Milestone. The high-gain dish has a Cassegrain reflector layout, composite construction, of 2.1-meter (7ft) diameter providing over 42dBi of gain and a half-power beam width of about a degree. The forward low-gain antenna is stacked atop the feed of the medium-gain antenna. This temperature differential requires insulation and isolation from the rest of the structure. The measured data is expected to greatly contribute to the understanding of the dust spectra of the Solar System. The resolution was that the problem happened as part of preparations for the approach, and was not expected to happen again because no similar tasks were planned for the remainder of the encounter. Coincidentally the Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station was where the photographic plates were taken for the discovery of Pluto's moon Charon. New Horizons is an interplanetary space probe that was launched as a part of NASA's New Frontiers program. New Horizons New Horizons is by far the youngest sibling of these groundbreaking missions, having just launched in 2006. Published Aug 3, 2022. Effective collecting area is 0.125m2 (1.35sqft). Instead, SWAP and PEPSSI could indirectly detect magnetic fields around Pluto. To conserve heat and mass, spacecraft and instrument electronics are housed together in IEMs (integrated electronics modules). Large ground telescopes with wide-field cameras, notably the twin 6.5-meter Magellan Telescopes in Chile, the 8.2-meter Subaru Observatory in Hawaii and the CanadaFranceHawaii Telescope[116][159] were used to search for potential targets. [29], However, the APL, in addition to being supported by Pluto Kuiper Express developers at the Goddard Space Flight Center and Stanford University,[29] were at an advantage; they had recently developed NEAR Shoemaker for NASA, which had successfully entered orbit around 433 Eros earlier that year, and would later land on the asteroid to scientific and engineering fanfare. Starting 3.2 days before the closest approach, long-range imaging included the mapping of Pluto and Charon to 40km (25mi) resolution. Ralph is a science instrument aboard the robotic New Horizons spacecraft, which was launched in 2006. [194] New Horizons was planned to come within 3,500km (2,200mi) of Arrokoth, three times closer than the spacecraft's earlier encounter with Pluto. [102] Recording from different angles and illumination conditions, New Horizons took detailed images of Jupiter's faint ring system, discovering debris left over from recent collisions within the rings or from other unexplained phenomena. [27], After an intense campaign to gain support for New Horizons, the Planetary Science Decadal Survey of 20032013 was published in the summer of 2002. Investigators compiled a series of images of the moons Nix and Hydra taken from January 27 through February 8, 2015, beginning at a range of 201million kilometers (125,000,000mi). ET on . Two star cameras are used to measure the spacecraft attitude. New Horizons recorded scientific instrument data to its solid-state memory buffer at each encounter, then transmitted the data to Earth. It was estimated that a worst-case scenario of total dispersal of on-board plutonium would spread the equivalent radiation of 80% the average annual dosage in North America from background radiation over an area with a radius of 105km (65mi). The New Horizons spacecraft launched on January 19, 2006 - beginning its odyssey to Pluto and the Kuiper Belt. [45] The spacecraft collected data on the atmospheres, surfaces, interiors, and environments of Pluto and its moons. They are mounted on the face of the spacecraft and provide attitude information while in spin-stabilized or 3-axis mode. [134][135] On July 5, NASA announced that the problem was determined to be a timing flaw in a command sequence used to prepare the spacecraft for its flyby, and the spacecraft would resume scheduled science operations on July 7. The structure is larger than strictly necessary, with empty space inside. To escape the Sun the spacecraft needs a speed relative to the Sun of the square root of 2 times the speed of the Earth (29.78km/s), or 42.1km/s. [74], The Venetia Burney Student Dust Counter (VBSDC), built by students at the University of Colorado Boulder, is operating periodically to make dust measurements. The probability that a target for New Horizons would be found was estimated beforehand at about 95%.[168]. Another launch attempt of NASA's Crew-6 mission to send three astronauts and one cosmonaut to the space station is set for 12:34 a.m. New Horizons was launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida, on January 19, 2006, and flew past Jupiter on February 28, 2007, for a gravitational boost on its long journey. It has seven instruments on board to . Two hours later, New Horizons surpassed its own record, imaging the Kuiper belt objects 2012 HZ84 and 2012 HE85 from a distance of 0.50 and 0.34AU, respectively. [183] This KBO was again imaged by the LORRI instrument on April 78, 2016, from a distance of 111millionkm (69millionmi; 0.74AU). It was developed by the U.S. Department of Energy at the Materials and Fuels Complex, a part of the Idaho National Laboratory. REX performed radiometry of the nightside. The cost of the mission, including spacecraft and instrument development, launch vehicle, mission operations, data analysis, and education/public outreach, is approximately $700million over 15 years (20012016). Further delays related to low cloud ceiling conditions downrange, and high winds and technical difficultiesunrelated to the rocket itselfprevented launch for a further two days. [27] Funding for the mission was finally secured following the publication of the report. It is the fifth space probe to achieve the escape velocity needed to leave the Solar System. The Naval Observatory itself is not far from the Lowell Observatory where Pluto was discovered. [184][185], In July 2016, the LORRI camera captured some distant images of Quaoar from 2.1billionkm away (1.3billionmi; 14AU); the oblique view will complement Earth-based observations to study the object's light-scattering properties. [33] The spacecraft was built primarily by Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) and the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory. [2] [115], Other possible targets were Neptune trojans. NASA Pluto Probe to Fly by Another Object in 2019", "New Horizons Encore? "[26] The call eventually led to a series of proposed Pluto missions, leading up to New Horizons. Still, its instruments were intended for small, dim targets, so they were scientifically useful on large, distant moons. The mission's principal investigator is Alan Stern of the Southwest Research Institute (formerly NASA Associate Administrator). [50] As a point of departure, the team took inspiration from the Ulysses spacecraft,[51] which also carried a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) and dish on a box-in-box structure through the outer Solar System. Its goal is to determine the composition of Pluto's atmosphere. NASA approved the New Horizons mission in 2001 to conduct the first flyby of the small distant planet and its large moon, Charon, and explore the Kuiper Belt of small icy objects that lay beyond. [120] In August 2014, astronomers made high-precision measurements of Pluto's location and orbit around the Sun using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) (an array of radio telescopes located in Chile) to help NASA's New Horizons spacecraft accurately home in on Pluto. [129] Pluto and Charon appear as a single overexposed object at the center. So, after Pioneer 10 passed Jupiter in 1973, it still had ample power to keep going. (The Pioneers have hexagonal bodies, whereas the Voyagers, Galileo, and CassiniHuygens have decagonal, hollow bodies.) [89] Further trajectory maneuvers were not needed until September 25, 2007 (seven months after the Jupiter flyby), when the engines were fired for 15minutes and 37seconds, changing the spacecraft's velocity by 2.37m/s (8.5km/h; 5.3mph),[90] followed by another TCM, almost three years later on June 30, 2010, that lasted 35.6seconds, when New Horizons had already reached the halfway point (in time traveled) to Pluto. [106] The probe was activated for about two months a year so that the instruments could be calibrated and the systems checked. [17][151], As of November 2018, at a distance of 43AU (6.43billionkm; 4.00billionmi) from the Sun and 0.4AU (60millionkm; 37millionmi) from 486958 Arrokoth,[152] New Horizons was heading in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius[153] at 14.10km/s (8.76mi/s; 2.97AU/a) relative to the Sun. [54] The mission parameters and observation sequence had to be modified for the reduced wattage; still, not all instruments can operate simultaneously. Helium is used as a pressurant, with an elastomeric diaphragm assisting expulsion. New Horizons' Star 48B third stage is also on a hyperbolic escape trajectory from the Solar System, and reached Jupiter before the New Horizons spacecraft; it was expected to cross Pluto's orbit on October 15, 2015. [167] Hubble has a much greater ability to find suitable KBOs than ground telescopes. Redundant components as well as guidance and control systems were shut down to extend their life cycle, decrease operation costs and free the Deep Space Network for other missions. [170], Once sufficient orbital information was provided, the Minor Planet Center gave provisional designations to the three target KBOs: 2014 MU69 (later 486958 Arrokoth) (PT1), 2014 OS393 (PT2), and 2014 PN70 (PT3). Multiple redundant clocks and timing routines are implemented in hardware and software to help prevent faults and downtime. All objects had estimated diameters in the 3055km (1934mi) range and were too small to be seen by ground telescopes. After launch, the New Horizons team scanned the spacecraft's trajectory to determine if any asteroids would, by chance, be close enough for observation. Searches will be conducted for orbiting moonlets, a coma, rings and the surrounding environment. The instrument is equipped with a 10241024 pixel by 12-bits-per-pixel monochromatic CCD imager giving a resolution of 5rad (~1arcsec). Close range imaging was repeated twice per day in order to search for surface changes caused by localized snow fall or surface cryovolcanism. [66] The CCD is chilled far below freezing by a passive radiator on the antisolar face of the spacecraft. The rated power is 21watts, though not all instruments operate simultaneously. [66] These public images do not contain the full dynamic range of brightness information available from the raw LORRI images files. NASA's New Horizons spacecraft launched toward Pluto in 2006, but the mission can trace its start back to 1930, when Clyde Tombaugh discovered the small planet and opened the door to a new, mysterious region of the solar system we're only now just beginning to understand. [102] Callisto's surface was analyzed with LEISA, revealing how lighting and viewing conditions affect infrared spectrum readings of its surface water ice. As of July 2022, approximately 10% of the data was still left to be received. [69], Pluto Energetic Particle Spectrometer Science Investigation (PEPSSI) is a time of flight ion and electron sensor that makes up one of the two instruments comprising New Horizons' plasma and high-energy particle spectrometer suite (PAM), the other being SWAP. [87], On January 28 and 30, 2006, mission controllers guided the probe through its first trajectory-correction maneuver (TCM), which was divided into two parts (TCM-1A and TCM-1B). It was later selected as one of two finalists to be subject to a three-month concept study, in June 2001. The Doppler shift was measured by comparison with the ultrastable oscillator in the communications electronics. Previous spacecraft, such as the Voyager program probes, had a rotatable instrumentation platform (a "scan platform") that could take measurements from virtually any angle without losing radio contact with Earth. On January 19, 2006, New Horizons was launched from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station by an Atlas V rocket directly into an Earth-and-solar escape trajectory with a speed of about 16.26km/s (10.10mi/s; 58,500km/h; 36,400mph). New Horizons has observed the dwarf planets Eris (2020), Haumea (2007, 2017, 2020), Makemake (2007, 2017), and Quaoar (2016, 2017, 2019), as well as the large KBOs Ixion (2016), 2002 MS4 (2016, 2017, 2019), and 2014 OE394 (2017, 2018). Map any additional surfaces of outermost moons: Characterize the energetic particle environment at Pluto and Charon, Refine bulk parameters (radii, masses) and orbits of Pluto and Charon, Mapping the surface geology to learn how it formed and evolved, Mapping the 3-D surface topography and surface composition to learn how it is similar to and different from comets such as, Searching for any signs of activity, such as a cloud-like coma, Searching for and studying any satellites or rings, This page was last edited on 27 February 2023, at 06:21. Relative to the Earth this is just 12.3km/s. [218] This is because pointing a camera towards Earth could cause the camera to be damaged by sunlight,[219] as none of New Horizons' cameras have an active shutter mechanism.[220][221]. This proved to be wrong as images obtained by New Horizons on July 14 and sent back to Earth in October 2015 revealed that Kerberos was smaller in size, 19km (12mi) across with a highly reflective surface suggesting the presence of relatively clean water ice similarly to the rest of Pluto's smaller moons. The target also needed to be within 55AU, because beyond 55AU, the communications link becomes too weak, and the RTG power output decays significantly enough to hinder observations. Estimates for the dimensions of these bodies are: Nix at 49.833.231.1km (30.920.619.3mi); Hydra at 50.936.130.9km (31.622.419.2mi); Kerberos at 19109km (11.86.25.6mi); and Styx at 1698km (9.95.65.0mi). [146][147] The spacecraft's immediate task was to begin returning the 6.25 gigabytes of information collected. [8][9] It is also the first spacecraft launched directly into a solar escape trajectory, which requires an approximate speed while near Earth of 16.5km/s (59,000km/h; 37,000mph),[b] plus additional delta-v to cover air and gravity drag, all to be provided by the launch vehicle. The Jupiter flyby provided a gravity assist that increased New Horizons' speed; the flyby also enabled a general test of New Horizons' scientific capabilities, returning data about the planet's atmosphere, moons, and magnetosphere. The Jupiter encounter also served as a shakedown and dress rehearsal for the Pluto encounter. However, it is not the fastest spacecraft to leave the Solar System. New Horizons had a relative velocity of 13.78km/s (49,600km/h; 30,800mph) at its closest approach, and came as close as 28,800km (17,900mi) to Charon. The detector contains fourteen polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) panels, twelve science and two reference, which generate voltage when impacted. [125] On this date, images of the targets with the onboard LORRI imager plus the Ralph telescope were only a few pixels in width. By the fall of 2014, a possible fourth target, 2014 MT69, had been eliminated by follow-up observations. [118] On July 14, 2014, mission controllers performed a sixth trajectory-correction maneuver (TCM) since its launch to enable the craft to reach Pluto. About 30 grams (1oz) of Clyde Tombaugh's ashes are aboard the spacecraft, to commemorate his discovery of Pluto in 1930. "I told him he was welcome to it," Tombaugh later remembered, "though he's got to go one long, cold trip. During the flyby the spacecraft made observations of Jupiter and its . Including other functions such as instrument and radio electronics, each IEM contains 9boards. Some members of the New Horizons team, including Alan Stern, disagree with the IAU definition and still describe Pluto as the ninth planet. In late 2013, New Horizons passed within 1.2AU (180,000,000km; 110,000,000mi) of the high-inclination L5 Neptune trojan 2011 HM102,[116] which was discovered shortly before by the New Horizons KBO Search task, a survey to find additional distant objects for New Horizons to fly by after its 2015 encounter with Pluto. Ralph has two separate channels: MVIC (Multispectral Visible Imaging Camera), a visible-light CCD imager with broadband and color channels; and LEISA (Linear Etalon Imaging Spectral Array), a near-infrared imaging spectrometer. [142], "The New Horizons flyby of the Pluto system was fully successful, meeting and in many cases exceeding, the Pluto objectives set out for it by NASA and the National Academy of Sciences."[143]. [15] In August 2016, New Horizons was reported to have traveled at speeds of more than 84,000km/h (52,000mph). [28] Each pellet is clad in iridium, then encased in a graphite shell. River Rhodes 10/17/22 The Thrill of Discovery The idea of exploring space is one that is relatively new, well, that is compared to how well explored the earth is and nothing significantly new has been discovered in a long while, space seemed like the place for new discoveries. [81][82] The Centaur second stage ignited at 19:04:43UTC and burned for 5 minutes 25 seconds. Infrared signatures of a further 36 volcanoes were noticed. It reignited at 19:32UTC and burned for 9 minutes 47 seconds. [222] The Parker Solar Probe can also be measured as the fastest object, because of its orbital speed relative to the Sun at perihelion: 95.3km/s (343,000km/h; 213,000mph). In August 1992, JPL scientist Robert Staehle called Pluto discoverer Clyde Tombaugh, requesting permission to visit his planet. Weiler stated that it was a result that "[his] administration was not going to fight". The goal of the mission is to understand the formation of the Plutonian system, the Kuiper belt, and the transformation of the early Solar System. Reflected sunlight from Charon allowed some imaging observations of the nightside. New Horizons carries seven instruments: three optical instruments, two plasma instruments, a dust sensor and a radio science receiver/radiometer. [46] "By way of comparison, New Horizons gathered 5,000 times as much data at Pluto as Mariner did at the Red Planet. The flyby increased New Horizons' speed by 4km/s (14,000km/h; 9,000mph), accelerating the probe to a velocity of 23km/s (83,000km/h; 51,000mph) relative to the Sun and shortening its voyage to Pluto by three years. DSN tests early in the mission with this dual polarization combining technique were successful, and the capability is now considered operational (when the spacecraft power budget permits both TWTAs to be powered). [36], In addition to the science equipment, there are several cultural artifacts traveling with the spacecraft. [148] Because of the extremely low RSL, it could only transmit data at 1 to 2 kilobits per second. New Horizons Jul 14, 2015 RELEASE 15-149 NASA's Three-Billion-Mile Journey to Pluto Reaches Historic Encounter Pluto nearly fills the frame in this image from the Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) aboard NASA's New Horizons spacecraft, taken on July 13, 2015 when the spacecraft was 476,000 miles (768,000 kilometers) from the surface. TCM-1 was accurate enough to permit the cancellation of TCM-2, the second of three originally scheduled corrections. [101] New Horizons received a gravity assist from Jupiter, with its closest approach at 05:43:40UTC on February 28, 2007, when it was 2.3million kilometers (1.4million miles) from Jupiter. The necessary course adjustment was performed with four engine firings between October 22 and November 4, 2015. The targets were at distances from the Sun ranging from 43 to 44 AU, which would put the encounters in the 20182019 period. These are small enough to fit on a single card. A second object was planned to be observed in June 2015, and a third in September after the flyby; the team hoped to observe a dozen such objects through 2018. The craft fully recovered within two days, with some data loss on Jupiter's. New Horizons' body forms a triangle, almost 0.76m (2.5ft) thick. "[210], Images taken by the LORRI camera while New Horizons was 42 to 45 AU from the Sun were used to measure the cosmic optical background, the visible light analog of the cosmic microwave background, in seven high galactic latitude fields. [201], New Horizons made its first detection of Arrokoth on August 16, 2018, from a distance of 107millionmi (172millionkm). [192] Additional objectives include:[193], Arrokoth is the first object to be targeted for a flyby that was discovered after the spacecraft was launched. [153] Voyager 1 attained greater hyperbolic excess velocity than New Horizons due to gravity assists by Jupiter and Saturn. [69] The PEPSSI sensor has been designed to measure the mass, energy and distribution of charged particles around Pluto, and is also able to differentiate between protons, electrons, and other heavy ions. [166] On June 16, 2014, time on Hubble was granted for a search. New Horizons, U.S. space probe that flew by the dwarf planet Pluto and its largest moon, Charon, in July 2015. The maneuver, which started at approximately 19:50UTC and used two of the spacecraft's small hydrazine-fueled thrusters, lasted approximately 16 minutes and changed the spacecraft's trajectory by about 10 meters per second (33ft/s). [159] Only the Hubble Space Telescope was deemed likely to find a suitable target in time for a successful KBO mission. [99] The images, taken from a distance of approximately 4.2billionkm (2.6billionmi; 28AU), confirmed the spacecraft's ability to track distant targets, critical for maneuvering toward Pluto and other Kuiper belt objects. [189], Science objectives of the flyby included characterizing the geology and morphology of Arrokoth[190][191] and mapping the surface composition (by searching for ammonia, carbon monoxide, methane, and water ice). The results resolved Pluto's diameter (by their timing) and atmospheric density and composition (by their weakening and strengthening pattern). [206] At this distance, the one-way transit time for radio signals between Earth and New Horizons was six hours. [207], After the encounter, preliminary, high-priority data was sent to Earth on January 1 and 2, 2019. The RTG, model "GPHS-RTG", was originally a spare from the Cassini mission. The Department of Energy transferred the space battery program from Ohio to Argonne in 2002 because of security concerns. [156][157][needs update], On November 2, 2015, New Horizons imaged KBO 15810 Arawn with the LORRI instrument from 280millionkm away (170millionmi; 1.9AU). [42][43] A Florida-state quarter coin, whose design commemorates human exploration, is included, officially as a trim weight. It was in 2006 when the New Horizons spacecraft was launched by NASA with the aim of performing the closest flyby of Pluto. The spacecraft's on-orbit mass including fuel is over 470kg (1,040lb) on the Jupiter flyby trajectory, but would have been only 445kg (981lb) for the backup direct flight option to Pluto. The New Horizons probe by NASA is continuing its mission to make scientific studies beyond Pluto and the Kuiper Belt into the outer heliosphere. [224][c], This article is about the space probe. The asteroid was estimated to be 2.5km (1.6mi) in diameter. In fact, the mission. [130] Starting May 11 a hazard search was performed, looking for unknown objects that could be a danger to the spacecraft, such as rings or hithero undiscovered moons, which could then possibly be avoided by a course change. On January 9, New Horizons returned to a spin-stabilized mode to prepare sending the remainder of its data back to Earth. [150] The transfer was completed on October 25, 2016, at 21:48UTC, when the last piece of datapart of a PlutoCharon observation sequence by the Ralph/LEISA imagerwas received by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. This Alice instrument is derived from another Alice aboard ESA's Rosetta spacecraft. [5] Engineered by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) and the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), with a team led by Alan Stern,[6] the spacecraft was launched in 2006 with the primary mission to perform a flyby study of the Pluto system in 2015, and a secondary mission to fly by and study one or more other Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) in the decade to follow, which became a mission to 486958 Arrokoth. The RTG attaches with a 4-sided titanium mount resembling a gray pyramid or stepstool. [131] No rings or additional moons were found. The amount of radioactive plutonium in the RTG is about one-third the amount on board the CassiniHuygens probe when it launched in 1997. It was the first space probe to visit Pluto. Characterize the global geology and morphology of Pluto and Charon, Map chemical compositions of Pluto and Charon surfaces, Characterize the time variability of Pluto's surface and atmosphere, Map the chemical compositions of select Pluto and Charon areas with high resolution, Map surface temperatures of Pluto and Charon. Also, the mass distribution required for a spinning spacecraft demands a wider triangle. On April 17, 2021, the New Horizons spacecraft passed 50 astronomical units - 50 times Earth's distance from the sun - while speeding toward interstellar space. These objectives could have been skipped in favor of the above objectives. [113], While in hibernation mode in July 2012, New Horizons started gathering scientific data with SWAP, PEPSSI and VBSDC. The probe, about the size of a piano, weighed nearly 1,054 pounds at launch. "[47], Some of the questions the mission attempts to answer are: What is Pluto's atmosphere made of and how does it behave? [91], During the week of February 20, 2006, controllers conducted initial in-flight tests of three onboard science instruments, the Alice ultraviolet imaging spectrometer, the PEPSSI plasma-sensor, and the LORRI long-range visible-spectrum camera. The booster was replaced with an identical unit, rather than inspecting and requalifying the original. At that range, 2011 HM102 would have been bright enough to be detectable by New Horizons' LORRI instrument; however, the New Horizons team eventually decided that they would not target 2011 HM102 for observations because the preparations for the Pluto approach took precedence. The probe, about the size of a piano, weighed nearly 1,054 pounds at launch. The science observations lost because of the anomaly were judged to have no impact on the mission's main objectives and minimal impact on other objectives. [187][188], The dwarf planet Haumea was observed from afar by the New Horizons spacecraft in October 2007, January 2017, and May 2020, from distances of 49AU, 59AU, and 63AU, respectively. New Horizons passed within 12,500km (7,800mi) of Pluto, with this closest approach on July 14, 2015, at 11:50UTC. By Giselle Dussel. Engineered by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) and the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), with a team led by Alan Stern, the spacecraft was launched in 2006 with the primary mission to perform a flyby study of the Pluto system in 2015, and a secondary . liptov arena podujatia, The encounter, preliminary, high-priority data was sent to Earth when was the new horizons spacecraft launched plutonium in the RTG is about space. And 2, 2019 days, with an identical unit, rather than inspecting and requalifying original. Attained greater hyperbolic excess velocity than New Horizons carries seven instruments: three instruments. 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